What Are the Active Ingredients in Passionflower?

Passion fruit, also known as passionflower, is native to Brazil。 The Passifloraceae family comprises over 500 species, including 18 genera. The Passiflora genus, characterized by its diverse species and high economic value, is widely distributed worldwide [1]. Currently, over 165 aromatic compounds have been identified in passion fruit, encompassing nearly all the fragrance profiles of tropical and subtropical fruits, making it one of the most aromatic fruits known to science and earning it the title of "King of Juices"[2-3]. Passion fruit juice, as a premium beverage, has seen a steady increase in consumer demand.

Passion fruit is nutritionally rich, and its unique aroma is attributed to its high content of aromatic compounds such as esters and alcohols. The higher the fruit's maturity, the greater the content of aromatic compounds and the more intense the aroma [4]. In addition to aromatic compounds, passion fruit contains abundant conventional nutrients such as amino acids, minerals, vitamins, fatty acids, dietary fiber, and多糖类, as well as bioactive compounds like flavonoids, alkaloids, and carotenoids, which exhibit antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, and anxiolytic functions.

Currently, passion fruit is primarily consumed fresh or processed into juice, with by-products such as peel and seeds discarded, resulting in resource waste and environmental pollution. Numerous studies have shown that passion fruit peel and seeds possess significant utilization value. The peel is rich in 天然顔料and has a strong aroma, making it suitable for processing into fruit preserves and jams without added colorants or flavorings, as well as for extracting natural pectin. The seeds are rich in oil and contain high levels of unsaturated fatty acids, making them suitable for extracting high-quality plant oils.

Research team members Cheng Wentao et al. [5] previously reviewed the bioactive components and physiological functions of passion fruit. Building on this work, the authors provide an overview of the conventional 栄養components and several functional substances such as ポリフェノールs and carotenoids in passion fruit, with a focus on highlighting the application value of by-products like peel and seeds. This aims to enhance consumers' understanding of the nutritional and functional components of passion fruit, with the aim of enhancing the application value of by-products, expanding their application scope, and promoting the development of the passion fruit industry.

1 Nutritional Components

1.1 Amino Acids and Proteins

Amino acids are the basic structural units of proteins, providing energy for the body and brain, and serving as the source of all life substances. According to analysis, passion fruit contains 17 amino acids, with glutamic acid (Glu), proline (Pro), and aspartic acid (Asp) being the most abundant. The total amino acid content is 1.054 g/100g, higher than that of bananas, mangoes, and oranges [6-7]. Among the 17 amino acids in passion fruit, 7 are essential amino acids for humans and 2 are essential amino acids for children.

Yuan Qifeng et al. [8] found that essential amino acids accounted for 23.36% of the total amino acid content in the juice of Purple Fragrance No. 1. Zhu Jie et al. [9] found that the content of 7 essential amino acids in the juice of the cold-tolerant variety Ping Tang No. 1 accounted for 36.14% of the total amino acid content, exceeding the recommended levels by the World Health Organization and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (35.38%). Additionally, passion fruit contains various specific functional proteins, including Pe-AFP1 [10], which inhibits the growth of Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium moniliforme, and Aspergillus fumigatus and is similar to the storage 2S albumin, and Pa-AFP1 [11], a dimeric protein that inhibits the growth of anthracnose mycelium, as well as antifungal proteins (Passiflin) [12] that inhibit the growth of Fusarium solani and the proliferation of human breast cancer cells and are similar to β-lactoglobulin.

1.2 Mineral Elements

Mineral elements are essential components for the formation of human tissues and the maintenance of normal physiological activities. Passion fruit juice, peel, and seeds all contain abundant K, Mg, Ca, and Na elements, with K being the most abundant. Additionally, they contain various essential trace elements for the human body, such as Fe, Zn, and Co [13-14]. The content of K, Na, and Mn in mature passion fruit is higher than that in six types of dried fruits such as cantaloupe and fig [15].

1.3 Dietary Fiber and Pectin

Dietary fiber is hailed as the seventh essential nutrient, with functions including lowering blood sugar, blood lipids, and blood pressure, and preventing the occurrence of coronary heart disease and atherosclerosis. Dietary fiber has strong water-holding capacity. Although it cannot be absorbed by the human body, it increases the volume and moisture content of feces upon entering the intestines, promotes intestinal peristalsis, accelerates the excretion of feces from the body, thereby reducing the residual time of toxic and harmful substances in the intestines and lowering the incidence of diseases [16-17].

During the processing of passion fruit juice, the peel, which accounts for 50% of the fresh fruit weight, is discarded as waste, resulting in significant resource waste and environmental pollution. Passion fruit peel is rich in dietary fiber. YAPO et al. [18] found that dietary fiber accounts for 73% of the dry weight of purple passion fruit peel, with insoluble dietary fiber content reaching 60%. Zhu Wen et al. [19] found that dietary fiber powder derived from passion fruit peel exhibited higher swelling capacity and water-holding capacity than those of standard bran fiber commonly used in Western countries.

Pectin is a major component of dietary fiber, possessing excellent gelling, thickening, and emulsifying properties, and is widely applied in the food and pharmaceutical industries [20]. Wen Liangjuan et al. [21] found that the pectin content of passion fruit peel was 12.5%. KULKARNI et al. [22] optimized the extraction process and found that the pectin yield from passion fruit peel could reach 14.8%, with production and quality comparable to those of apple and orange peel pectin. Passion fruit peel pectin contains low levels of acetyl groups, neutral sugars, and proteins, and has low methyl esterification, making it a natural low-methyl pectin [23]. Chen Yingshan [24] found that passion fruit pectin reduces colonic mucosal damage in mice and prevents ulcerative colitis.

1.4 Fatty Acids

Passion fruit seeds account for approximately 8% to 14% of the fresh weight of the fruit, and the seeds contain 19.36% to 27.68% oil, with unsaturated fatty acids constituting over 85% of the fatty acid composition [25-30]. Fatty acids are divided into saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, with unsaturated fatty acids exhibiting antioxidant properties, cholesterol-lowering effects, reduction of triglyceride levels, decreased blood viscosity, and prevention of atherosclerosis [31-32]. Passiflora seeds oil is not only rich in unsaturated fatty acids but also dominated by linoleic acid, an essential fatty acid, with linoleic acid content comparable to safflower oil and higher than soybean and walnut oils, followed by oleic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, and linolenic acid [26-33].

2 Functional Compounds

2.1ポリフェノール

Polyphenolic compounds include flavonoids, tannins, phenolic acids, and アントシアニンs. Numerous studies have found that passionflower leaves, juice, and peel are rich in polyphenolic compounds, making them an important natural source of polyphenols. COLOMEU et al. [34] found that the total phenolic content in Passiflora alata leaves was (9.5 ± 2.8) mg/g DW. Liu Nanbo et al. [35] found that the flavonoid extraction rate from Passiflora edulis leaves could reach 2.81%. COLOMEU et al. [34, 36] reported that the polyphenols in passionflower leaves are primarily composed of carbon glycosides such as luteolin, apigenin, kaempferol, isokaempferol, quercetin, and isoquercetin. ZERAIK et al. [37] found that the total flavonoid content in yellow passion fruit juice (0.16 mg/mL) is comparable to that in orange juice (0.20 mg/mL) and sugarcane juice (0.24 mg/mL).

Passion fruit juice contains abundant polyphenolic compounds represented by hydroxy and oxidized violinol derivatives, as well as terpenoids such as linalool and α-pinene [38], and also contains rich isoquercitrin [37], flavanol monomers, and proanthocyanidins [39]. Wen Liangjuan et al. [21] found that the total flavonoid content in purple passion fruit peel was (1,180.67 ± 16.73) mg/100g DW, and the total phenolic content was (2,811.24 ± 22.74) mg/100g DW. SIMIRGIOTIS et al. [40] found that the total phenolic and total flavonoid contents in banana passion fruit peel were significantly higher than those in juice, being 2.5 times and 1.8 times higher, respectively; and the composition of individual phenolic compounds also showed significant differences. with 31 individual phenolic compounds detected in the peel and pulp, among which 16, including myricetin, were unique to the peel. Polyphenols possess free radical scavenging and antioxidant properties, and the antioxidant activity of fruits is closely related to their rich content of polyphenolic compounds [41].

Research has found that passion fruit juice has a high total polyphenol content, and its antioxidant activity is the highest among 24 tropical fruits [42]. The high content of polyphenols contributes more to the antioxidant activity of passion fruit than carotenoids [39]. Antioxidants are one of the primary food additives, but safety concerns regarding synthetic antioxidants have remained a focal point of debate [43]. Passion fruit juice and its byproducts are rich in polyphenols and possess strong antioxidant activity, making them a promising natural source for the development and utilization of antioxidants.

2.2 Alkaloids

Passiflora plants contain monoindole alkaloids based on a β-carboline ring, including harman, harmanol, harmanol, and camphor alkaloids [44]. The 薬用macerated extract of pink passion fruit contains harman and harmin at concentrations of 10–20 μg/mL, and the harman and harmin content in greenhouse-grown pink passion fruit is higher than that in wild-grown plants [45].

2.3 Carotenoids

Carotenoids are a general term for important natural pigments that significantly influence the appearance and quality of fruits and vegetables. They possess antioxidant, anticancer, cardiovascular disease prevention, and anti-aging effects, serving as the primary source of vitamin A in the body and a commonly used food additive [46]. Carotenoids are precursors of many aromatic compounds, so passion fruit with intense aroma also contains abundant carotenoids. Among different varieties, double-flowered passion fruit has the highest levels of lutein and β-carotene, followed by yellow-fruited passion fruit, while purple-fruited passion fruit has the lowest levels [47]. Thirteen carotenoids were detected in yellow-fruited passion fruit, with ζ-carotene being the most abundant [48]. Among 12 tropical fruits, passion fruit juice had the highest β-carotene content at (1,362.07 ± 136.221) μg/100g FW, second only to West Indian cherry and papaya; additionally, seeds also contain β-carotene, with a content of (57.93 ± 5.80) μg/100g FW [49].

2.4 Aromatic compounds

Passiflora has a strong aroma, with main components including ethyl butyrate, hexyl butyrate, ethyl hexanoate, ethyl acetate, benzaldehyde, and β-ionone, among others [50-51]. The volatile components in Xishuangbanna yellow passion fruit, primarily consisting of benzyl alcohol, dihydro-β-ionone, and hexadecanoic acid, possess a pleasant, refreshing fragrance and can be used for tobacco flavoring [51]. The purple-fruited variety of passion fruit has a more intense aroma than the yellow-fruited variety, primarily due to the different proportions of four lipid compounds—ethyl butyrate, ethyl hexanoate, butyl hexanoate, and hexyl hexanoate—in the fruit [4].

2.5 Other functional compounds

Passionflower possesses significant medicinal value, which is attributed to its rich content of functional compounds. Passionflower also contains triterpenoids, cyanogenic compounds, kaempferol, quercetin, and anthocyanins, which play important roles in anxiety relief, anti-

inflammatory, and antibacterial activities [3, 52–54].

3 Development prospects and outlook

Passion fruit is a fruit that combines edible and medicinal value. Its rich nutritional and health-promoting components have been widely recognized by consumers, and demand for consumption continues to grow. Passion fruit can flower and bear fruit in the same year of planting, with quick economic returns. Additionally, influenced by supply and demand dynamics, passion fruit is widely cultivated in China's tropical and subtropical regions, with planting areas expanding annually.

The development of the passion fruit industry also faces challenges. In terms of cultivation, there is a lack of variety, limited genetic resources, and severe pest and disease issues. China's passion fruit industry is relatively underdeveloped, with insufficient genetic resources. Currently, the main varieties cultivated domestically are Taiwan No. 1, Purple Fragrance No. 1, Golden Passion Fruit, and Full Star, leading to a lack of variety and weak competitiveness in the industry. Diseases such as stem base rot, blight, and viral diseases are prone to occur, and chemical pesticides are difficult to control, severely affecting fruit quality and yield. As a result, production is primarily annual, with replanting required the following year, leading to increased costs.

Therefore, accelerating the introduction of superior varieties, expanding the genetic resource advantages of passion fruit, and accelerating breeding to develop superior plants suitable for domestic development and with good resistance is imperative. In terms of processing, the main focus is on simple juice processing, with few deep-processed products. During the initial processing stage, the fruit peel and seeds are often discarded as waste. In recent years, people have recognized the economic value of these by-products, and products such as passion fruit candies and jams have appeared on the market. However, the development of these by-products remains insufficient. For example, the pectin, natural pigments, and aromatic compounds in the peel can be used as food additives, while the oils in the seeds can be extracted for use as high-quality plant oils.

Therefore, it is essential to prioritize research and development of relevant processing technologies to enhance the comprehensive utilization value of passion fruit and achieve higher economic benefits. In terms of pharmacological activity, the identification of relevant components and their mechanisms of action remain unclear. The anxiolytic and cough-suppressing pharmacological activities of passion fruit have been widely recognized. However, due to the complexity of its functional components and mechanisms of action, further research has been hindered. Nevertheless, with advancements in technology and extraction techniques, passion fruit extracts are likely to find applications in clinical medicine in the near future.

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